Theories of Language Evolution

ASSIGNMENTS B. Com General – 1st Semester Subject Name: Language – Functional English Subject code: BCC 101 Summer Drive 2012 4 credits (60 marks) (BKID: B1294) Set 1 1. What is the difference between the theories of language evolution? 1. 2. 3 Language evolution and memes It is possible to imagine numerous potential scenarios by which language might have evolved as a purely biological adaptation. However, Susan Blackmore, reveals a different theory of language evolution in her book The Meme Machine.She proposes that it evolved for the sake of being a characteristic of a culture (memes), not as an adaptation for the benefit of genes. Susan says that memes first came into existence with the advent of true imitation in humans, which allowed the former to spread through populations. Recalling production of new copies or that fecundity is necessary for a replicator. She also said that the language came into existence to serve the purpose of being a mechanism for improving t he fecundity of memes. Sound transmission has many advantages for the purpose – sounds can be heard by multiple listeners and can be used even at night.After sound transmission (proto-language) came into existence, the â€Å"digitalization† of language into discrete words arose as a mechanism for ensuring meme fidelity, or lack of errors in the new copies. She explains that those alterations that produce the most copies of the highest fidelity will be those that predominate, thus improving the language. Blackmore goes on to suggest that grammar was an adaptation to improve the fecundity and fidelity of existing memes; its recursive structure then provided the framework for the development of more complex memes, which then favored the existence of more complex grammar, etc. n a self-sustaining process. Furthermore, language then began to exert pressure on the genes, creating a selection pressure toward bigger brains that are better at language. If people prefer to mate with those possessing the best or most memes, then the genes that allowed those people to be good meme-spreaders will be differentially transmitted into the next generation. This process again leads to a self-catalytic process of brain evolution that places a strong survival and reproductive advantage on those most capable of meme transmission.Finally, Blackmore believes that language is an unavoidable result of the existence of memes, which follow naturally from the ability to imitate (an ability that is, surprisingly, realized in very few species). She states, â€Å"Verbal language is almost an inevitable result of memetic selection. First, sounds are a good candidate for high-fecundity transmission of behaviour. Second, words are an obvious way to digitise the process and so increase its fidelity. Third, grammar is a next step for increasing fidelity and fecundity yet again, and all of these will aid memorability and hence longevity†. 2.What are the common mistakes done wh ile writing declarative sentences? Give examples of each of them. 2. 5. 3 Statement A statement is also known by the name of a declarative sentence. This type of sentence simply states a fact, an argument or an idea, without requiring any answer or action from the reader. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. There are two types of statements, viz. 1. Unconditional statement 2. Conditional statement Let us understand both of them one by one. 1. Unconditional Statement: These are the statements without any condition in them. Example, a) Marina plays the piano. (b) I think you will pass. (c) I have forgotten his name. (d) She asked which drink I preferred. 2. Conditional Statement: These are the statements with a condition(s) in a clause accompanied by the main clause which shows the action. The conditional statements are of three types: (a) The open conditional statement. (b) The hypothetical conditional statement. (c) The unfulfilled hypothetical stateme nt. Let us understand each of them one by one. (a) The open conditional statement: This type of statement generally refers to a future event which is conditional on another future event.The verb of the conditional clause is in the simple present tense and the verb of the main clause is in the future tense (usually with â€Å"will†). Example, 1. If I sleep too much, my eyelids swell. 2. My eyelids swell if I sleep too much. 3. Only if the entire team works fast, we'll finish the work today. 4. We will not finish the work today if the entire team does not work fast. 5. We will not finish the work today unless the entire team works fast. Occasionally, the open conditional statement describes a situation or an instance which is dependent on another instance (given in the conditional clause).In this case, both verbs are in the present tense. Example, 1. If I sleep well at night, I feel much relaxed in the morning. 2. If it rains, I enjoy it a lot. Sometimes, „if? is replaced by „when?. „If? implies that the condition is really open and may not be fulfilled, while „when? implies that the condition will be fulfilled and event will certainly take place. Example, 1. I will sing when you dance. 2. I shall have my lunch when the bell rings. (b) The hypothetical conditional statement: The hypothetical conditional statement refers to a possible future situation which depends on another possible future situation.The verb of the main clause uses the present conditional tense (would + infinitive, or could + infinitive) and the verb of the conditional clause normally uses the present subjunctive. Sometimes, the conditional aspect of the statement can be emphasized by using the form were + to + infinitive. Example, 1. If you slept well at night, you would be relaxed in the morning. 2. You would be relaxed in the morning if you slept well at night. 3. Only if the entire team worked fast, we could finish the work that day. 4. We would not finish the work that day if the entire team did not work fast. 5.We would not finish the work that day unless the entire team worked fast. 6. If the entire team were to work fast, we could finish the work that day. Sometimes the statements use the open hypothetical form, though it is clearly quite impossible. In such cases, the main clause uses would/could+ verb form. Example, 1. If I were you, I would never go there. 2. My teacher told me that I would definitely improve my scores if I worked harder. (c) The unfulfilled hypothetical statement: The unfulfilled hypothetical statement refers to a situation which an event might have taken place, but did not, because a condition was not fulfilled.The verb of the main clause goes 3. What do you mean by passive voice? 3. 2. 2 Passive voice The active voice is the â€Å"normal† voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, whe n to use it and how to blend it. The structure of the passive voice is very simple: subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle) The main verb is always in its past participle form. [pic] Though usually active voice is given preference over the others, it does not mean that passive voice should not be used.But you should use it only in the following instances: †¢ In order to intentionally make something true so as to minimize the guilt of the subject. For example, †¢ A cheating wife might respond, â€Å"Yes, adultery was committed by me. † †¢ In order to intentionally hide the subject of the sentence. For example, †¢ A political leader might say, â€Å"Mistakes were made. † †¢ In order to make passive voice better emphasize the main point of the passage. For example, Children were harmed by unlicensed cab drivers Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats). The passive voice is less usual.L ook at this sentence: He was killed with a bullet. Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the bullet is not the active subject. The bullet did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a bullet. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a bullet. The bullet is the instrument. Somebody is the â€Å"agent† or â€Å"doer†. Conjugation for the passive voice Passive can be made in any tense. If we pay attention, we will find that the conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be.To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example: †¢ Present simple: It is made. †¢ Present continuous: It is being made. †¢ Present perfect: It has been made. 4. 2 Concepts of Vocabulary Building Each of us stands testimony to the fact that it is an essential prerequisite to have a good vocabulary in order to communicate e ffectively. There are many ways to improve our vocabulary. Some of them are as under: 1. Flash Cards: Flash cards are an excellent method of reviewing both old and new vocabulary words.Not only are they the best way to learn vocabulary, you may also use them in other ways. For example, key ideas may be written out and reviewed. In addition, declensions such as the article can be put on a card for easy reviewing. These types of cards will need to be larger than 2† x 4†. A full size index card would work for these purposes. Let us make a flash card now. (a) On the front of the flash card: Write a vocabulary word, and only the word, neatly on the front of the card. Center the word both horizontally and vertically, and be sure to keep the front of the card free from extra markings, smudges or doodles. b) On the upper left corner of the back of the flash card: On the reverse side, the information side of the flash card, write a definition for the word in the upper left corner . Make sure you write the definition in your own words. This is the key. If you write a dictionary definition, you will be less likely to remember what the word means! (c) On the upper right corner of the back of the flash card: Write the part of speech in the upper right corner of the info side. Make sure you understand what the part of speech means before writing it down. Then, colour-code it. Highlight the part of speech with one colour.When you make another flashcard with another part of speech, you'll use a different colour. Make all the nouns yellow, all the verbs blue, etc. Your mind remembers colours really well, so you'll start to associate colour with the part of speech, and you'll have an easier time remembering how the word functions in a sentence. (d) On the lower left corner of the back of the flash card: Use the vocabulary word in a sentence you will remember. Make the sentence steamy, hillarious, or creative in some other way. If you write a bland sentence, your chan ces of remembering what the word means go way down.Example of a memorable sentence: My pompous ex-boyfriend used to think he could get any girl he wanted, until he met my friend Mandy, who laughed at his conceited self in front of the entire school. Example of a non-memorable sentence: The king, whose pompous heads-of-state were trying to dethrone, decided to flee the country to save his own life. (e) On the lower right corner of the back of the flash card: Draw a small picture/graphic to go with the vocabulary word. It doesn't have to be artistic – just something that reminds you of the definition.For the word â€Å"pompous,† or â€Å"conceited†, maybe you'd draw a stick person with his nose in the air. Why? You remember pictures much better than words, which is the reason you can't write anything on the front of the card besides the vocabulary word – you'd remember the design and associate it with the definition instead of associating the word with the definition. Repeat this process for every one of your vocabulary words, until you have a deck of flash cards. 2. Rote method (repetition): This is something that we all hate. Rote the new words up to remember them. But isn’t it the way we used to learn new words in the childhood?So remember, when no other methods work, you should not hesitate to resort to the time tested rote method. 3. Self dictionary: We hear and read new words all the time but rarely do we take the time to look them up. When you hear an unfamiliar word, jot it down and take the time to look it up later. 4. Word games: There are many games that can be played online. It not only serves as a way to entertain but at the same time, develops your vocabulary. Some of the examples of such games are Word Search, Cross Words, Hang Mouse, Quiz, Match Game, Scramble, Letter Blocks, etc. 5.Visualisation: At times there are very difficult words that can’t be learnt by any method else than visualization. Words can be related with something familiar and funny so that it can be remembered. 6. Reading: Read a lot. The experience of encountering unfamiliar words in print is remarkably instructive. First, because you're already engaged in reading something, you are arguably more motivated to learn a new word so that you better understand what you're voluntarily reading. Second, you have come across the word organically rather than artificially (i. e. in a vocabulary list).You'll pick up new words – and clarify meanings of words already in your toolkit – by exposing yourself to them in their, shall we say, natural habitat. The context will enrich your attempt to build a better vocabulary. Diversity of topics is important: Read some natural science stuff, applied science stuff, contemporary literature, Shakespeare, Psychology book and then consume a humorous work. Varied reading will sharpen both general and subject-specific vocabularies. A manger may not feel the utility of subjects like History, Philosophy, Biology, Travel, Anthropology, Linguistics, Art, Gender Studies, Politics, etc.But a mind that knows varied fields has a rich vocabulary as well as is respected everywhere. You don't have to be an expert in all disciplines to build a meaty vocabulary, but you do need to be a well-informed reader who is confident and comfortable reading on topics outside your areas of immediate expertise. 7. Interact in English: All said and done, we must try to improve our spoken English so as to write better. The more we speak in English, the better it would be for us to improve our vocabulary. 5. Decide which parts of speech are the underlined words: i.You have to believe in yourself if you ever expect to be successful at something. – Pronoun ii. We left for the mountain just before six in the morning. – Verb iii. We first went to the store to buy a few things. – Preposition iv. We had a breakfast at a cafe near the rail station. – Noun v. My f riend wasn't strong enough to lift his heavy rucksack. – Adjective vi. I helped him carry it. – Pronoun vii. The weather was very cold. – Adverb viii. My friend said, â€Å"Oh! What a cold weather! † – Interjection ix. We didn't spend the night there. – Adverb x. We got back home late at night but we didn't go to sleep immediately.We were very hungry. – Conjunction. 6. Fill in the blanks with these words: against, at, like, on, to, up, with, near, for. i. She is doing a degree course __at__a university. ii. We had to climb slowly ___up__ the hill. iii. His house looks __like___ a temple. iv. Don't lean that ladder ___ against __ the wall. v. My house is quite ___ near __ to your school. vi. A university is where you study ___ for __ a degree. vii. He sometimes quarrels ___ with __ the neighbour. viii. Her next birthday will be __on__ a Sunday. ix. My father has a car __like__ yours. x. The mob stoned her __to__ death.